The Toxic Organizational Culture at Wal-Mart - 3272 Words

Running Head: TOXIC ORGNAIZATIONAL CULTURE The Toxic Organizational Culture at Wal-Mart TOXIC ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE The Toxic Organizational Culture at Wal-Mart Organizational culture is not a new concept in the world of organizational behavior. Yet despite its age, it still has many varied definitions as well as philosophies on its importance and impact to the success of a company. One definition is that organizational culture is a cognitive framework consisting of attitudes, values, behavioral norms, and expectations shared by members of an organization (Greenberg, 2013, p. 368). Greenberg (2013) further explains organizational culture through an analogy of a tree. Organizational culture are similar to the roots of a tree.†¦show more content†¦Numerous suits have been filed for subjects such as child labor, illegal immigrant employment, wrongful termination, religious discrimination, and illegal blocking of unions. In California, a class action suit was filed over Wal-Mart’s refusal to abide by state law and provide employees with an unpaid thirty minute break for lunch when working a six hour shift. Colorado and Oreg on have filed similar suits. Healthcare has been another hot topic for Wal-Mart. Despite claims by the corporation that they are providing healthcare to employees at significant savings, many have argued the plans are not adequate. So much so that states like Maryland and New Jersey have created laws requiring Wal-Mart to provide more healthcare to their associates. The same company that makes over $15 billion in annual profits, also only pays the average associate $11.75. This number is below the national average for retail employees. Annually, a person making this wage will earn $20,744. That is below the poverty line set at $22,000 (Blodget, 2010). This is yet another example of the issues seen today with Wal-Mart. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is a very simple concept in organizational behavior. It is simply a yes or no question. Is an individual satisfied with their current employment.Show MoreRelatedEssay about The Walmart Case Study2799 Words   |  12 Pagesï » ¿ Wal-Mart Case Study 1 What threats and challenges is Wal-Mart currently facing Wal-Mart Wal-Mart, is an American retail corporation that runs chains of large discount department stores. The company is the worlds second largest public corporation, according to the Fortune Global 500 list in 2013, the biggest private employer in the world with over two million employees, and the largest retailer in the world. The company was founded by Sam WaltonRead MoreThe Distribution Of A Product Essay2235 Words   |  9 Pagesthe raw material to the company for the production. Walmart have good relationship with there each supplier and the supplier of the Walmart also provide them quality and cheap product. 3. 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Edgar Allan Poe and Gothic Imagery in The Cask of...

ENG 341-Studies in Literary Genres | The Significance of Imagery | In Edgar Allan Poe’s â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† | Lauren Grilli 6/7/2010 | Imagery is described as the ‘mental pictures’ one interprets from reading any type of literature; this can be done using any of the five senses: taste, touch, smell, sight and sound. Edgar Allan Poe is notorious for his use of dramatic imagery in the gothic genre. â€Å"Gothic literature has a number of conventions, including evocations of horror, suggestions of the supernatural, and dark, exotic locales such as castles and crumbling mansions† (Canada, 1997). In this paper, I will examine the imagery Poe has chosen in The Cask of Amontillado, and explain why it is vital to the furthering of†¦show more content†¦The suspense builds when it becomes clear Fortunato has no clue about his fate. Montresor informs the intoxicated Fortunato of the Amontillado stored in the vaults below. After a little ego-trip, Fortunato convinces himself he must go and sample this grand vintage wine. As the story progresses, so does Montresor and Fortunato’s hell-li ke descent into the vaults, and also the â€Å"nitre† which â€Å"hangs like moss upon the vaults† (DiYanni, 2004). Montresor tells Fortunato â€Å"We are below the river’s bed† where â€Å"The drops of moisture trickle among the bones† and warns him to â€Å"Come, we will go back ere it’s too late† (DiYanni, 2004). The foulness of the air around them had â€Å"caused our flambeaux rather to glow than flame†, and created a feeling of suffocation (DiYanni, 2004). By using simple but descriptive passages such as these, the reader is transported to the chilly vaults and can feel what the narrator and his companion sense. Every detail of the caves is explored through dialogue and as one scholar noted, â€Å"Poe’s strict attention to the geology and chemistry of the subterranean passages of Montresor’s chateau serves a much larger purpose than a simple description, the creation of atmosphere, and the selection of a n ideal place to conceal a murder† (Benton, 1991). With the centuries of buried dead around them and the dripping walls, it is literally a place of death and the reader becomes aware of this evenShow MoreRelatedEdgar Allan Poe s The Cask Of Amontillado1559 Words   |  7 PagesEdgar Allan Poe, a famous romanticism writer, created a gothic tone in his stories by describing the setting of his stories with vocabulary that helped create the dark plots of stories such as â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†, â€Å"The Raven† and â€Å"The Pit and The Pendulum†. Poe’s own foster father, John Allan, stated that â€Å"His (Poe’s) talents are of an order that can never prove comfort to their possessor†. How did Poe create such gothic tones in his stories with only describing the foul settings and wickedRead MoreThe Masque of the Red Death vs. the Cask of Amontillado1564 Words   |  7 PagesThe Masque of the Red Death vs. The Cask of Amontillado â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death† and â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† written by Edgar Allan Poe are somewhat different. The major themes of these stories differ significantly, as does the emphasis placed on each character which dealt more to The Cask of Amontillado† than to â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death† Regardless of this, the stories are similar in many ways. For instance, both belong to the literacy of the gothic genre, it shared a small theme, andRead MoreEdgar Allan Poes Use of Gothisism891 Words   |  4 PagesEdgar Allan Poe is a well-known fixture in American literature; whose stories have made sizeable contributions to the Gothic literary element. Many of Poe’s stories contain more than one Gothic element. â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† is a prime example of this. In this story Poe presents the themes of death and the accompanying supernatural. Poe often uses his proficiency in Gothic to invoke deep reading. For many, th is proficiency causes Poe’s stories to be difficult to fully understand at firstRead MoreStyle Of Edgar Allan Poe881 Words   |  4 Pagesdo! In fact, Edgar Allan Poe, also known as the â€Å"Master of Horror†, is a well known author known for his style and the effect it has on his readers. Edgar Allan Poe is a poet and an author. He writes terrifying short stories and poems that can give the reader nightmares. For the same reason, his style is very gothic and ominous. He uses several literary devices that help create such creepy effects. In three of his most well-known works, â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart,† â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado,† and â€Å"The RavenRead MoreRole of Realism in Edagar Allan Poe ´s The Tell Tale Heart and The Cask of Amortillado1014 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† written by Edgar Allan Poe are dark short stories relevant to murder, revenge, and mystery. Poe writes both stories in a Gothic style in order to deal with ideas of realism. One may ask were the murders and punishments justifiable in either short story? One may also ask did Poe accurately depict realism in each story? Realism, defined as a technique in literature that accurately represents everyday life, is questioned in Poe’s works: â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart† and â€Å"The Cask ofRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe s The Tell Tale Heart1538 Words   |  7 PagesPotentially Mad, Potentially Genius: Edgar Allan Poe’s Style â€Å"True!—nervous—very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad?† Poe wrote this line in his â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart,† and he very well could have been speaking about himself. Many generations have debated on whether or not Edgar Allen Poe was a mad. Reviewers and readers have looked at Poe’s work for nearly two centuries, trying to pick it apart and see if it’s the ramblings of a mad man or well piecedRead MoreEdgar Allan Poes Writing Style598 Words   |  2 PagesMaster of suspense and horror, Edgar Allan Poe is known for his Gothic writing style, as demonstrated in two of his well-known short stories, â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart† and â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† His style is created by his use of punctuation, sentence structure, word choice, imagery, and tone. First off, punctuation-wise, dashes, exclamation marks, semicolons, and commas are a favorite of Poe. All this is shown in t he first sentence of â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart†, â€Å"True!—nervous—very, very dreadfully nervousRead MoreAnalysis of Edgar Allan Poes Writing Style Essay776 Words   |  4 PagesA virtuoso of suspense and horror, Edgar Allan Poe is known for his Gothic writing style. His style is created through his use of punctuation, sentence structure, word choice, tone, and figurative language. Punctuation-wise; dashes, exclamation marks, semicolons, and commas are a favorite of Poe. His sentences vary greatly; their structures are influenced by punctuation. Much of his word choice set the tone of his works. Figurative language colors his writings with description. Such is observed inRead MoreA Gray Atmosphere By Edgar Alan Poe1404 Words   |  6 PagesA Gray Atmosphere Edgar Alan Poe is the father of Dark Romanticism. He brought out the ‘gothic’ of literature and with that said not many of his pieces had a happy ending. When thinking of Poe a chill comes over me, the brute force, imagery and vocabulary that he used was enough to make any reader shudder, yet keep reading. Poe talks of dark things such as murder, insanity and betrayal; he certainly had a different perspective when it came to writing. The culture and ethical value in his storiesRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe s The Cask Of Amontillado2043 Words   |  9 PagesMy tentative thesis states that Edgar Allan Poe’s â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† is the single most perfect short story through a number of masterful techniques in order to drive home the point that the whole story is a confession to his priest in his dying hour. In order to help prove this, I attempted to gather articles mentioning religious imagery within this piece as well as other Poe works and looked i nto biographical information so as to have a number of sources from which to choose. The first set

The Role Of Accounting In The Collapse Of Game Group Free Essays

string(108) " are important in determining how the market will value the price of the equity of a firm \(Penman, 2007\)\." Introduction The Game Group plc is a UK based Investment Company. It is specialised in the retail of video games and personal computers through retail outlets and eCommerce sites (Google Finance, 2013). On the 21st of March 2012, the company officially filed for administration as it became evident that it could no longer continue as a going concern (Robinson, 2012; BBC, 2012). We will write a custom essay sample on The Role Of Accounting In The Collapse Of Game Group or any similar topic only for you Order Now Past experience suggests that accounting has contributed to many cases of corporate failure. This was the case with the failures of Enron, WorldCom and many other companies. The objective of this paper is to discuss how accounting contributed to the failure of The Game Group plc. The paper begins by presenting theoretical and empirical evidence on how accounting can contribute to corporate collapse in section 2; section 3 discusses how accounting contributed to the collapse of the Game Group by making reference to the evidence presented in section 2; section 4 provides a summary and conclusion of the paper. Accounting and Corporate Collapse Creative accounting has been cited as one of the principal causes of corporate collapse. Companies like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco International filed for Bankruptcy under Chapter 7 as a result of poor accounting. The managers of these companies were involved in lies, deceit, cover-up and above all shoddy accounting, which could not be sustained for long. As a result, the share prices of the companies were bound to fall and thus the companies themselves were bound to file for bankruptcy under chapter 7 of the US Bankruptcy Code. Creative accounting involves the use of accounting techniques that may or may not be in compliance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAPs) but that certainly deviate significantly ethical standards (Ghosh, 2010). When involved in creative accounting, managers often make use of novel approaches to reporting income so as to influence the outcome of contractual agreements that are determined by financial reports (Ghosh, 2010). Creative accounting involves systematically misrepresenting the true earnings and asset values of companies. Creative accounting has been responsible for a number of high profile cases of corporate failures such as Enron, WorldCom, Adelphia and Tyco International. One of the most commonly used forms of creative accounting is earnings management. Earnings management occurs when management employ judgment in financial reporting and transaction structuring with the intent of altering financial information either to influence the outcome of contractual agreements that depend on financial reports or to mislead interested parties about the performance, changes in financial position and financial position of the company (Healy and Wahlen, 1999). Earnings management represents â€Å"a purposeful intervention in the external financial reporting process, with the intent of obtaining some private gain† (Schipper, 1989). Most of the figures in the balance sheet and income statement are based on accrual accounting which arises because not all transactions are settled in cash at the time they are entered into. Therefore, accrual accounting must be used to record assets and liabilities that arise as a result of the time difference between the inceptio n of the transaction and the time the transaction is settled. This has resulted in the use of discretionary accounting. Managers employ discretionary accrual accounting to satisfy their selfish desires (Heemskerk and Va der Tas, 2006). The use of discretionary accruals is considered earnings management when managers employ it to influence the share price of their company or to obtain some other benefit that is of a personal nature. Earnings management has been an important subject of debate in the accounting literature with most studies focusing on understanding the factors that motivate managements to manae earnings. A bonus-maximisation theory has thus been suggested which states that managers manager earnings to maximise bonuses. For example, evidence suggests discretionary accruals are employed by managers to maximise short-term bonuses (Healy, 1985). Similar evidence is suggested in Gaver et al. (1995) and Hotlthausen et al. (1995) who observe that managers make use of accrual accounting to reduce earnings when earnings are above their maximum bonus level. However, such accruals are not employed when the minimum bonus level has not been attained (Holthausen et al., 1995; Gaver et al. (1995). An income smoothing theory has also been suggested which argues that managers like to observe a smooth pattern in earnings. Consequently a number of accounting techniques are employed to ensure that earnings are smooth over time. Gaver et al. (1995) provide evidence that is consistent with the smoothing theory. In addition, Guidry et al. (1999) and Tao (2007) observe that earnings management is carried out because managers do not want significant differences to occur between actual and predicted earnings. It has also been argued that managers hate reporting a decline in earnings. Consequently, accounting techniques are employed to ensure that the change in earnings over time is positive. Burgstahler and Dichev (1997) provide evidence that is consistent with this incentive by observing that managers tend to emphasise an increase in earnings in the Annual Report Section titled: â€Å"Management Discussion†. In Tenneco’s 1994 Annual Report for example, the CEO Dana Mead stated as follows: â€Å"I must emphasise that all our strategic actions are guided and measured against this goal of delivering consistently high increases in earnings over the long term† (Burgstahler and Dichev, 1997: 99). In addition Eli Lilly laid so much emphasis which lasted for a period of 33 years before being broken. Some firms emphasise the importance of increasing earnings during press releases or the announcement of earnings. The CEO of Bank of America for example, Richard Rosenberg in 199 4 stressed the importance of increasing earnings in a press release by stating that â€Å"Increasing earnings per share was our most important objective for the year† (Burgstahler and Dichev, 1997: 100). The foregoing indicates that managers are more inclined to reporting an increase in earnings rather than a decrease. Barth et al. (1995) for example suggests that firms tend to maintain an upward trend in earnings so as to improve valuation ratios such as the price-to-earnings (P/E) ratio, the price-to-book (P/B) ratio, etc. P/E and P/B ratios are important in determining how the market will value the price of the equity of a firm (Penman, 2007). You read "The Role Of Accounting In The Collapse Of Game Group" in category "Essay examples" Therefore, managers will be motivated to maintain high P/E and P/B ratios through earnings management so as to benefit from a high market valuation of their firms’ equity. Similar evidence is provided in DeAngelo et al. (1996) who observe that a distortion in a firm’s upward trend in earnings results in significant declines in the stock price. Accounting and the Collapse of the Game Group Section 2 above focused on understanding how accounting can lead to corporate collapse. The evidence shows that managers tend to make use of creative accounting techniques which results in an inflation of earnings and thus the share price. Given that the share price does not reflect its intrinsic value, the long-run effect is a significant decline in the share price with the ultimate effect being the collapse of the company. This section is concerned with whether there was any use of creative accounting in the Game group which led to its collapse. So far, the evidence shows that accounting had nothing to do with the collapse of the group. Rather, the company’s collapse can be attributed to a variety of other factors including poor strategic planning, declining video game industry, and the cyclical nature of the video games industry . 3.1 Poor Strategic Planning It was rather, poor strategic planning on the part of the company that resulted in its collapse. The company failed to anticipate and plan for changes in its external environment. The company continued using strategies that were no longer relevant in the context of its external environment. In addition, the Game group had a poor pricing strategy. Prices of Game Group’s games were too high compared to prices of competitors such as Amazon and Play. Many customers are migrating from store shopping to online shopping. According to Administrators at Price Water House Coopers, Game Group’s collapse can be attributed to its ambitious overseas expansion and the closure of proximity stores. Game Group’s strategy was characterised by two fundamental problems. Firstly, the company expanded massively into different countries (Yin-Poole, 2012). This means that the company had significantly high levels of fixed costs which could not be sustained. When fixed costs are significa ntly high, the business risk of the firm increases significantly. Secondly, Game and Gamestation stores were in close proximity. This resulted in the cannibalisation of sales of one store by other stores (Yin-Poole, 2012). Therefore, many stores were simply incurring fixed costs which could not be covered by sales revenue. 3.2 Declining Video Games Industry The company suffered significantly because of poor developments in its external environment. Wallop (2012) observes comments by the CEO of the company Mr Shepherd who claims that in 2012, the size of the video game market had declined by 40% from its 2012 figure. This contributed negatively to the performance of the company. The company’s share fell by 2.44 to 4.31p and resulting in a decline to less than ?15million. Customers made significant changes in their consumption of video games. Most customers were interested in buying only new releases such as Fifa 2012 and Modern Warfare. Lesser known titles could not perform well because of declining demand Wallop (2012). The Game Group could not survive because it had a lot of games in stock that did not meet the current tastes and preferences of consumers of video games. 3.2 Cyclical nature of the Video Games Industry Despite making a profit of ?90million in 2009, the Game Group recorded a loss of ?15million in 2011 (Wallop, 2011). The main reason for this loss was the intense cyclical nature of the video games industry (Wallop, 2011). The market lacks exciting new hardware. In addition, the industry has been suffering from piracy. Lack of new hardware and an increase piracy has resulted in declining demands which has eroded industry profits. As a result the Game Group could no longer survive in the industry. The Game Group was also affected by the introduction of digital games, which can be regarded as a perfect substitute for video games. For example, in 2010, sales of digital games totalled ?411m representing an increase by 23 percent from the 2009 figure. On the contrary, the video game industry witnessed a decline in sales by 17 percent to ?1.53billion between 2009 and 2010 (Wallop, 2011). In addition, the development of smart phones and the IPAD has affected the video games industry. These devices come with free digital games. This resulted in the decline in video games sales and thus contributed to the collapse of the Game Group (Wallop, 2011). Summary and Conclusions The objective of this paper was to analyse the impact of accounting on the failure of Game Group. The above analyses show that Game Group’s collapse was in no way related to accounting failure. There was no evidence to suggest that managers at Game Group were involved in creative accounting. Unlike the case of Enron, and other major corporate failures, the Game Group had no special purpose entities which enabled it to high liabilities off the books. Game group’s failure can be attributed to poor strategic planning rather than to accounting failure. Based on the analysis, there is no evidence suggesting that Game Group was involved in inappropriate accounting. Rather, the evidence shows that Game Group simply did not plan properly. Game Group did not put in place strategies that would enable it respond adequately to changes in its external environment. The company failed to analyse the threat of substitute products, new entrants, bargaining power of suppliers and customers as well as industry rivalry. References Healy, P.M., Wahlen, J.M., 1999. A review of the earnings management literature and its implications for standard setters. Accounting Horizons, 13, pp. 365-383. Hayn, C., 1995. The Information Content of Losses, Journal of Accounting and Economics, 20, pp. 125-153 Heemskerk, M., and L. van der Tas. 2006. Veranderingen in resultaatsturing als gevolg van de invoering van IFRS. Maandblad voor Accountancy en Bedrijfseconomie: 571-579. Holthausen, R. W., Larcker, D. F., Sloan, R., 1995. Annual Bonus Schemes and the Manipulation of Earnings, Journal of Accounting and Economics, 19 (1) pp. 85-100 Epstein, B. J., Jermakowicz, E. K., 2007. Interpretation and Application of International Financial Reporting Standards, Wiley and Sons Inc. Penman, S. H. (2007) Financial Statement Analysis and Security Valuation, 3rd ed. Irwin: McGraw-Hill. Schipper, K. 1989. Earnings Management. Accounting Horizons, pp. 91-102 Robinson, A. (2012) GAME officially files for administration Retailer fails to find â€Å"a realistic prospect for a solvent solution for the business†, available online at: http://www.computerandvideogames.com/340810/game-officially-files-for-administration/ [accessed: 29th March 2013]. BBC (2012) Game Group to file for administration, available online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-17455742 [accessed: 29th March 2013]. Wallop, H. (2012) Game shares slump on profits warning, loan breach fears, available online at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/9004248/Game-shares-slump-on-profits-warning-loan-breach-fears.html [accessed: 29th March 2013]. Wallop, H. (2011) Can Game Group survive?, available online at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/8895015/Can-Game-Group-survive.html [accessed: 29th March 2013]. Yin-Poole, W. (2012) Why Game Collapsed: PwC cites â€Å"unfortunate† proximity of stores and â€Å"ambitious† overseas expansion, available online at: http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012-03-26-why-game-collapsed [accessed: 29th March 2013]. How to cite The Role Of Accounting In The Collapse Of Game Group, Essay examples

Theories of Medical Decision Making and Health

Question: Discuss about the Theories of Medical Decision Making and Health. Answer: Introduction The nursing environment is often complex and requires regular and effective decision-making continuously, decisions that have direct implications for the nursing professionals as well as the patient. With the increase in complexity of healthcare, Kydonaki et al. (2016) point out that nurse is forced to rely on effective and sound decision-making skills with the aim of maintaining an up-to-date care ad positive health outcome to the patients. The same study notes that nursing professionals are responsible for the decisions they make at the organizational and professional levels. It is thus necessary for the nurses to be aware of the effects and impacts of the decisions they are making towards their professionalism, the patient, as well as the organization in which they work. Reyna (2012) denotes that decision-making is a professional responsibility in the health industry is also recognized in the code of professional conduct by the Nursing and Midwifery Council. In a systematic review by Muir (2014), the study notes that there is an increase in the emphasis on adoption of evidence-based practices in the healthcare profession. The same study notes that the conscientious, judicious, and explicit adoption of current best evidence is making the process of focused towards the rights of the patients. It hence makes it clear the need for nurses to using a conscious process of making decisions not only based on the evidence to use but even on the particular patient they are making the decision reference upon. Gaining an insight into the process adopted by nurses in making decisions should also be visible to the management and the healthcare team as they can as well help in making effective decisions depending on the complexity of the situation. Tscharaktschiew (2016) notes that decision-making is an aspect that is beneficial and can improve communication, interprofessional relationships, and patient care. The objective of this paper is providing analysis of the nursing decision-making process with a major focus on the models used. The paper narrows down to three models adopted by nurses in decision-making where each model is analyzed in relations to its pros and cons within the nursing practice i.e. information processing theory, contingency theory, and cognitive continuum theory. The paper also focuses on Santos (2016) that will apply in my nursing practice with a clear rationale as to why it is the best model. The paper also discusses contradictions, inconsistencies, and complexities for the decision-making making theories discussed with a counter argument of each theory and its effectiveness. According to Tscharaktschiew (2016), a decision is a point reached, a solution, a resolution, or a conclusion reached after a consideration. The same study notes that effective decision-making in nursing practice is often carried out by adopting some specific models of study based on evidence that is involved in a deliberate mental choice in relation to the secondary sources presented in the study. In his study, Santos (2016) notes that the attempt of describing a decision in clinical setups often focused on certain conceptual frameworks or models that govern the process. Studies show that there are various models adopted in the interpretation and explanation of decision-making. However, the diversity between the models has often been masked by and the common themes between them are not clear. In their study, Kydonaki et al. (2016) also assert that when making a decision in healthcare using analytical approaches, it is necessary that the nurse making the decision relates the presenti ng situation to certain roles, often considered the models or guideline principles of decision-making. There are several theories that can be adopted in a clinical setting with the aim of achieving effective decisions for nurses in a clinical setting. These include; Information Processing Theory According to Tscharaktschiew (2016), the assumption of the information processing theory is that decision-makers often store the relevant information on their memory and the effective decision reached occurs when the decision-maker retrieves the information from both the long- and short-term memory. With nursing profession considered a profession that requires academic qualifications, Muir (2014) points out that the information gained from education as well as an individuals experience is often stored throughout life in the long-term memory of the brain. The same study suggests that clinical experts and nursing professionals often use the short-term memory information in simulating the retrieval of the information in the long-term memory. For example, a nurse dealing with the diagnosis of a leg ulcer will use the short-term memory on the knowledge of the patients signs and symptoms to retrieve the information stored in the long-term memory on the symptoms and signs of venous body ulc erations. In his study, Reyna (2012) denotes that information processing theory often underpins other models of nursing decision-making. For instance, a seven-stage processing model suggested by Thomas and Carnevali (1999) denotes that making a decision in nursing care requires certain procedures that need to be followed for effectiveness. The model describes a seven-step diagnostic reasoning that involves, presenting a pre-encounter data, entry of the data into while shaping the data gathering direction, and coalescing of the information cues into chunks or clusters. Also involved are formulation of hypothesis or activating possible explanations of diagnosis, data-directed search of the hypothesis, testing of the relevant hypothetic diagnosis, and processing of diagnosis. In other words, the health professional meets the patient and gathers information such as the history of the patients as well as the signs and symptoms of an infection among other vital information. Santos (2016) points out that following the interaction or during the process, the nurse begins to note the key information of the data which are later used for making inferences. According to the theory, this is the point at which both short and long-term memory are both engaged as the nurse clusters the information together while identifying the relevant patterns. It is from the careful considerations of the collected information and the evaluation of the formulated hypothesis that a decision is made on the correct diagnosis of a situation. However, Muir (2014) denotes that information processing theory outlines other important stages of nursing decision-making that are often considered as temporary stages as they do not have to follow a specific linear pattern. The theory suggests stag es such as the recognition of the situation that needs a decision made, formulating an explanation, alternatively generating other possible explanations, searching for information for the clarification of the available evidence and choices, making a relevant judgment of the choice, taking action, and reporting a feedback as pointed out by Dowding (2010, P. 78). According to Muir (2014), information processing theory is often considered to be flexible at is directly focusing on making effective decisions towards the duties of the nurses. However, the purpose only differs slightly with the cognitive continuum model in that the objective of the decision is often the action rather than the diagnosis process. According to Daviter (2014), the information processing model is often preferred by many nursing professionals as the most flexible decision-making model. The same study denotes that the model often considers pattern recognition on the basis of some critical information. The pattern recognition adopted suggests that every case is compared with other previous cases that are then stored in the short and long-term memory of an individual and categorized or classified according to the similarities between them. In other words, information processing model allows the use of other past experiences and ideas in solving the current situation. Contingency theory in nursing According to Daviter (2014), the basis of the contingency theory of decision-making in a clinical setting considers having other alternatives as solutions to a problem rather than just considering a single way as the best in handling any clinical challenge. Whether it is the organization of the entire healthcare setting or planning a patient treatment workflow, the best nursing decision is often influenced by the external and internal factors affecting the predetermined situation as the decision-making style. In his study, Reyna (2012) denotes that in contingency theory, there is a universal strategy for effective health care provision and patient management within a clinical setting. The design of the healthcare setting, structure, and culture of the organization must be in line with the various environmental aspects affecting decision-making. For example, decision-making towards the best way of dealing with a medical complication in the patient will have to adhere to the recommende d health care standards and guidelines by the relevant healthcare bodies to ensure a collaborative and corporative process that abides by the guidelines. In his study, Tscharaktschiew (2016) denotes that applying the contingency theory in nursing leadership and management styles will depend on several factors that govern the need for effective decision-making. For instance, making an effective decision of care for long-term health conditions such as cancer, depression, diabetes, dementia, etc, depends on the social, economic, psychological, and environmental factors affecting the patient and the family. In his study, Muir (2014) denotes that long-term health conditions are often accompanied by the stress of acceptance, poor communication, and social withdrawal, aspects that require an evaluated decision on the treatment process that will be effective depending on the condition of the patient. In such cases, contingency theory becomes very vital in evaluating the most suitable methods of care such as collaborative care or person-centered strategies. Therefore, the nurse-patient relationship, the state of the patient conditions, the org anizational structure, and experience of the nurses among other factors are essential for the contingency theory as they have both direct and indirect influences on decision-making towards healthcare. On the other hand, contingency theory when applied in making a decision in the clinical setting as it has its advantages and disadvantages. Daviter (2014) denotes that the effectiveness of the decision made will depend on the balance of the importance of the decision made. It is also based in how complete the decision-makers are informed on the subject and the likelihood of reception or acceptance of the decision made. Contingency theory hence requires effective communication between the nurse and the patient so that awareness can be made on any unpopular decision to increase the chances of positive results at the end of the decision-making process. Cognitive Continuum Theory According to Campbell (2015), all processes of decision-making often involve at some point various forms of comparisons that principally include comparisons between decision situations, between alternatives, as well as between possible attributes of the different alternatives. Cognitive continuum theory of decision-making is identified as one of the recent theories not only in clinical setting but used even in other industries. According to the theory, many clinical judgments are often present information that tends to induce an oscillation between intuitive and analytical cognition (Dowding 2010, P. 78). The theory also suggests that judgments and decision-making processes are often joint functions of cognitive properties and task properties. In other words, the theory suggests that different tasks of decisions should be done by adopting different but relevant cognitive processes. In a strategic analysis of the study, Lauri and Salantera, (2011) denote that a decision-making task involving various uncertainties tends to be difficult when it should be broken down into different components. In such a case, it is more advisable adopting a more intuitive approach other than a decision task is properly structured with few but more recognizable cues. According to Hamers et al. (2013), cognitive continuum theory has been tested in other non-clinical settings and is accepted as an alternative way of nursing decision-making conceptualization. The theory is hence adopted in many nursing organizations as a tool or instrument of exploring the perception of nurses on decision-making as it influences the method through which nurses arrive at effective decisions in the practical clinical situations in the process of healthcare provision. The theory is hence mainly used in the examination of the cognitive processes often adopted by nurses in making healthcare decisions while correlating them with contextual and demographic factors an aspect that is considered as an advantage to both the nurses and the organization. Choose one that you will apply to your nursing practice with a clear rationale In his study, Muir (2014) points out those nurses often make a range of decisions in their daily practices. There are also different perspectives or stances aimed at explaining decision-making that differs in the account of influence as well as the extent at which the decision made is intuitive depending on the model adopted by the nurses. Campbell (2015) also denotes that clinical decision-making is considered an integral aspect of the role of nurses especially in times of decision-making complexities. Information processing decision-making theory will be the most effective for use in any clinical setting as its solutions are reached based on the evidence of the patient's information.The theory often involves situational variables and identified clinical experiences as major influencers of decision-making in relation to the cues retrieved from the long- and short-term memory of an individual. In a systematic review, Tscharaktschiew (2016) denotes that professional experience, nursing knowledge and skills, and evidence-based perspective often supports effective decision-making models. These factors hence determine the informed values of the patient, the available professional resources, as well as research knowledge on the conceptual nursing issue that calls for the decisions. Information processing theory is hence more advantageous as compared to contingency and cognitive continuum theory. Complexities and contradictions of the theories and provide one counter-agreement According to Kydonaki et al. (2016), the development and adoption of descriptive theories in the clinical model have been very dynamic. Despite the development of information processing theory, contingency theory, and cognitive continuum theory many authors have come up with frameworks with the primary aim of a better understanding and comparison of the descriptive theories. Daviter (2014) proposed that the process of human development involves at least one of the three modes of decision-making; matching, reassessment, and consequential choice. The same study denotes that the three modes often form an argument-driven as well as an interactive framework where actions towards decision making are categorized by discussion and argument rather than the choice of forward-looking. Irrespective of the theory adopted in the clinical setting, it is essential that nurses should be very objective and focus much on the decision itself based on the factors surrounding the decision. These factors can be internal or external but have a direct influence on the kind of decision to be made by the nurse as pointed out by Santos (2016, p. 416). The same study denotes that many people have often compromised good decisions as a result of self-interests, fear, and feeling from other people hence resulting into negative eventualities. However, adoption of contingency theory often comes with challenges as decisions are at times made on the personal ground and self-interest while neglecting the most effective alternative for the best result. In a clinical setting, the results of a bad decision can be destructive or can lead to an adverse negative effect on the decision-maker, the receiver, the organization, as well as the community at large. In his studies, Campbell (2015) denote that some of the effects of decision-making models in the clinical settings include lessons being learned in a hard way, loss of property and jobs, time wastage, wrong diagnosis and medication, economic losses, misplaced priorities in terms of both individual and organizational objectives and goals, and in worst cases, loss of life. Despite the challenges facing the adoption of the theories in a practical clinical decision-making process, Muir (2014) presents a counter argument with the idea that the use of every theory often based on the factors affecting the decision-making process as well as the complexities involved. However, every theory is often practiced at different levels depending on the objective of decision-making. Depending on the situation, all the theories are effective since they are evidence-based. According to Kydonaki et al. (2016), an effective decision-making theory should be predictive and explanatory since quality in decision-making is essential other than focusing on evaluating every factor involved while missing the objective of the decision-making process. However, information processing theory is preferred by many nurses as it ideally encompasses prior theories and relevant data rather than contradictory evidence by different authors as pointed out by Campbell (2015, p. 6). Conclusion Decision-making in any industrial setting is an essential aspect for nurses and other medical practitioners. The more experience one acquires in making a decision, the more one gets familiar with the processes and tools that can lead to effective and sustainable decision-making. Proper decision-making is not only essential to an individual and the receiver of the decision as well as the organization. As a result, it is essential for a professional to learn the theories, models, and tools of effective decision-making in their respective organizational responsibilities and that can aid in making good decisions. With the analysis of the various theories that can be adopted in effective decision-making in a clinical setting, it is essential that every nurse understands the effect and implication of every theory adopted. The process of making effective decisions in nursing practice environment is a very complex process but very integral to the nursing profession. In this report, the proce ss of decision-making is a very dynamic conceptual process that can easily affect not only the nurses but even the outcome of the patients who receives healthcare. Depending on the theories, decision-making is also affected by the size of the clinical setting or healthcare organization, differences between the nurses and the leadership, operational management styles, government regulations, technologies, socioeconomic conditions, attitudes between patients and nurses, and the corporate cultures. In other words, nurses are called upon to be very evaluative to understand the aim and effective ways of making sound decisions with a self-reflection idea in developing the process further within their professional environment. Gaining an insight into the process adopted by nurses in making decisions should also be visible to the management and the healthcare team as they can as well help in making effective decisions depending on the complexity of the situation. 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